Magnetic disks are direct-access medium and so are the most popular online secondary storage devices. Direct-access devices are also called random-access devices because information is literally available at random or in any order. Access to any location on the device is direct and so approximately equal access time is required for each location. An example of this is a music CD where if you wish to listen to the 5th song, you can directly select the 5th track. It does not require you to fast forward the previous 4 songs.
Magnetic disk is a circular plate made of metal or plastic, coated with magnetized material. Often both sides of the disk are used. Data is recorded on the disk in the form of magnetised and non-magnetised spots (not visible to the naked eye).
Track: Data is stored in concentric rings or tracks. To minimize the interference of magnetic fields, the adjacent tracks are separated by inter track gaps.
Sector: Tracks are commonly divided into sections called sectors. In most systems, the minimum quantity of information that can be transferred is a sector. Usually 8 or more sectors per track are found.
Usually the upper surface of the topmost disk and the lower surface of the bottom-most disk are not used since these are prone to getting scratched easily. For faster access of data from disk packs, a concept called cylinders is used.
Disk Storage Capacity
Capacity: Maximum number of bits that can be stored
Vendors express capacity in units of gigabytes (GB), where 1 GB = 10^9.
Capacity is determined by these technology factors: Capacity is determined by these technology factors:
Recording density (bits/in): number of bits that can be squeezed into a 1 inch segment of a track.
Track density (tracks/in): number of tracks that can be squeezed into a 1 inch radial segment.
Arial density (bits/in2): product of recording and track density.
The storage capacity of a disk system can be determined as follows:
Storage capacity = Number of recording surfaces x Number of tracks per surface x
Number of sectors per track x Number of bytes per sector
In this question we have given a Magnetic disk having 80 tracks having 15 sectors per track. Also, each sector can store 512 bytes, then
Storage capacity = 2 sides per disk x 80 tracks per side x
15 sectors per track x 512 bytes per sector
= 1,228,800 bytes
= Approximately 1.23 MB
Friday, July 4, 2008
Wednesday, July 2, 2008
Seek Time & Memory Hierarchy
¬ SEEK TIME
The disk address is specified in terms of the surface number, track or cylinder number, and the sector number. The read/write heads need to be first positioned on the track on which the data are to be recorded or from which data needs to be read.
Information is always written from the beginning of a sector and can be read only from the beginning of the desired track. Thus, the disk access time depends on the (i) Seek Time & (ii) Latency Time
Seek time: The seek time measures the amount of time required for the read/write heads to move between tracks over the surfaces of the platters. Seek time is one of the most commonly discussed metrics for hard disks, and it is one of the most important positioning performance specifications. The seek time would vary depending upon the position of the access arms at the time the read/write command was received, i.e., if the access arm was positioned on the outermost track and the current read operation required it to be positioned on the 5th track, then the time taken to position the access arm on track 5 is the seek time. It is obvious from this example that moving from outermost to the innermost track or vice versa would result in the maximum seek time. The average seek time in most systems is 10-100 milliseconds.
Typical full seek time is 8 ms. Average seek time (from one random position to another random position) is 1/3 full seek time.
While seek time is usually given as a single number, in fact there are three different seek time specifications you should examine for a drive, as they represent the drive's performance when doing different types of seeks:
(i) Average: As discussed, this is meant to represent an average seek time from one random track (cylinder) to any other. This is the most common seek time metric, and is usually 8 to 10 ms, though older drives had much higher numbers, and top-of-the-line SCSI drives are now down to as low as 4 ms!
(ii) Track-to-Track: This is the amount of time that is required to seek between adjacent tracks. This is similar in concept (but not exactly the same as) the track switch time and is usually around 1 ms.
(iii) Full Stroke: This number is the amount of time to seek the entire width of the disk, from the innermost track to the outermost. This is of course the largest number, typically being in the 15 to 20 ms range. In some ways, combining this number with the average seek time represents the way the drive will behave when it is close to being full.
MEMORY HIERARCHY:
Memory in the computer system is required for storage and subsequent retrieval of instructions and data. Fast access to instructions and data stored in memory is essential in order to meet the throughput requirements of the processor. Memory system can be considered to consist of three groups of memories:
Ø Internal processor memory consists of a small set of high-speed registers
Ø Primary storage or main memory is a large memory, which is fast, but not as fast as internal processor memory.
Ø Secondary storage or auxiliary memory or backing store is much larger in size than the main memory but is slower than the main memory.
A balanced provision for different kinds of memory – CD-ROM, hard-disc, DVD, main semiconductor memory (DRAM), cache memory (SRAM, SSRAM or SDRAM), processor registers – is necessary in order to meet the performance/cost requirements of a computer system.
650 MB – 1 TB, 100 ms - ??
The total memory capacity of the computer can therefore be visualised as being a hierarchy of components consisting of all storage devices employed in a computer system from the slow but high-capacity auxiliary memory to a relatively faster main memory, to an even smaller and faster cache memory accessible to the high-speed processing logic. Thus, as one goes up in the hierarchy, the following conditions occur:
(i) Decreasing cost per bit (ii) Increasing capacity (iii)Increasing access time
(iv) Decreasing frequency of access of the memory by the processor
CPU Registers:
CPU contains several registers for storing data and instructions. But these can store only few bytes. Internal processor memory consists of a small set of high-speed registers that are internal to a processor and are used as temporary locations where actual processing is done.
Main Memory:
Primary storage or main memory is a large memory, which is fast, but not as fast as internal processor memory. This memory communicates directly with the CPU and is mainly based on integrated circuits.
Cache Memory:
Another kind of memory that is increasingly being used in modem computers is called the cache memory. Cache memories are small, fast memories placed between the CPU and the main memory. Due to it’s expensiveness of this memory it is used in small quantities only. The memory read or writes operation is first checked with the cache and if the desired data is available in the cache it is used by the CPU directly.
Secondary Storage Memory:
Devices that provide backup storage (like magnetic tapes and disks) are called secondary storage or auxiliary memory. It typically stores all the system programs and other software.
For e.g. CD-ROM, hard-disc, DVD
The disk address is specified in terms of the surface number, track or cylinder number, and the sector number. The read/write heads need to be first positioned on the track on which the data are to be recorded or from which data needs to be read.
Information is always written from the beginning of a sector and can be read only from the beginning of the desired track. Thus, the disk access time depends on the (i) Seek Time & (ii) Latency Time
Seek time: The seek time measures the amount of time required for the read/write heads to move between tracks over the surfaces of the platters. Seek time is one of the most commonly discussed metrics for hard disks, and it is one of the most important positioning performance specifications. The seek time would vary depending upon the position of the access arms at the time the read/write command was received, i.e., if the access arm was positioned on the outermost track and the current read operation required it to be positioned on the 5th track, then the time taken to position the access arm on track 5 is the seek time. It is obvious from this example that moving from outermost to the innermost track or vice versa would result in the maximum seek time. The average seek time in most systems is 10-100 milliseconds.
Typical full seek time is 8 ms. Average seek time (from one random position to another random position) is 1/3 full seek time.
While seek time is usually given as a single number, in fact there are three different seek time specifications you should examine for a drive, as they represent the drive's performance when doing different types of seeks:
(i) Average: As discussed, this is meant to represent an average seek time from one random track (cylinder) to any other. This is the most common seek time metric, and is usually 8 to 10 ms, though older drives had much higher numbers, and top-of-the-line SCSI drives are now down to as low as 4 ms!
(ii) Track-to-Track: This is the amount of time that is required to seek between adjacent tracks. This is similar in concept (but not exactly the same as) the track switch time and is usually around 1 ms.
(iii) Full Stroke: This number is the amount of time to seek the entire width of the disk, from the innermost track to the outermost. This is of course the largest number, typically being in the 15 to 20 ms range. In some ways, combining this number with the average seek time represents the way the drive will behave when it is close to being full.
MEMORY HIERARCHY:
Memory in the computer system is required for storage and subsequent retrieval of instructions and data. Fast access to instructions and data stored in memory is essential in order to meet the throughput requirements of the processor. Memory system can be considered to consist of three groups of memories:
Ø Internal processor memory consists of a small set of high-speed registers
Ø Primary storage or main memory is a large memory, which is fast, but not as fast as internal processor memory.
Ø Secondary storage or auxiliary memory or backing store is much larger in size than the main memory but is slower than the main memory.
A balanced provision for different kinds of memory – CD-ROM, hard-disc, DVD, main semiconductor memory (DRAM), cache memory (SRAM, SSRAM or SDRAM), processor registers – is necessary in order to meet the performance/cost requirements of a computer system.
650 MB – 1 TB, 100 ms - ??
The total memory capacity of the computer can therefore be visualised as being a hierarchy of components consisting of all storage devices employed in a computer system from the slow but high-capacity auxiliary memory to a relatively faster main memory, to an even smaller and faster cache memory accessible to the high-speed processing logic. Thus, as one goes up in the hierarchy, the following conditions occur:
(i) Decreasing cost per bit (ii) Increasing capacity (iii)Increasing access time
(iv) Decreasing frequency of access of the memory by the processor
CPU Registers:
CPU contains several registers for storing data and instructions. But these can store only few bytes. Internal processor memory consists of a small set of high-speed registers that are internal to a processor and are used as temporary locations where actual processing is done.
Main Memory:
Primary storage or main memory is a large memory, which is fast, but not as fast as internal processor memory. This memory communicates directly with the CPU and is mainly based on integrated circuits.
Cache Memory:
Another kind of memory that is increasingly being used in modem computers is called the cache memory. Cache memories are small, fast memories placed between the CPU and the main memory. Due to it’s expensiveness of this memory it is used in small quantities only. The memory read or writes operation is first checked with the cache and if the desired data is available in the cache it is used by the CPU directly.
Secondary Storage Memory:
Devices that provide backup storage (like magnetic tapes and disks) are called secondary storage or auxiliary memory. It typically stores all the system programs and other software.
For e.g. CD-ROM, hard-disc, DVD
Tuesday, July 1, 2008
Chopper crash leaves grieving mother-to-be Expectant father among 6 to die when medical helicopters collide in Ariz.
FLAGSTAFF, Ariz. - A soon-to-be father who loved being a firefighter was among six people killed when two medical helicopters collided in Arizona.
Michael MacDonald, 26, was fighting wildfires at the Grand Canyon when he was bitten by an insect on Friday and taken to a nearby hospital, said Tyson Runningwolf, fire management officer for the Blackfeet Nation in Montana.
MacDonald suffered prophylactics shock — a life-threatening allergic reaction — from the treatment he received for the bite, and was being transported to the Flagstaff Medical Center in Arizona when the helicopters collided Sunday afternoon.
One of the helicopters was operated by Air Methods from Englewood, Colo., and the other was from Classic Helicopters of Woods Cross, Utah. Both aircraft were Bell 407 models.
Investigators plan to begin examining the remains of the helicopters on Tuesday.
Ninth accident this year
It was the ninth accident this year involving emergency medical aircraft, bringing the number of deaths to 16, National Transportation Safety Board officials said Monday.
MacDonald was aboard the chopper coming from the South Rim of the Grand Canyon, about 70 air miles from Flagstaff, farther by ground. The drive on well-paved roads takes about 90 minutes. The other chopper was coming from Winslow, about 50 miles away on Interstate 40.
 |
Three people died on each of the two Bell 407 helicopters: the pilot, the patient and a flight nurse on one chopper, the pilot, the patient and a paramedic on the other. A flight nurse on one of the helicopters was hospitalized in critical condition.
At the crash site Monday, wreckage from one helicopter sits as a pile of twisted metal among bent pine trees. One long rotor blade sticks up in the air, while another is bent up at a 90-degree angle. Green wire hangs out of the wreckage, and medical bags are strewn about. The smell of fuel lingered Monday.
More than 300 feet away, what was a helicopter is now a pile of burned metal in a clearing atop a mesa.
A surveillance camera from one of the hospital's parking lots captured the crash, but it will require technical work to remove the time stamp that blocks footage of the collision.
MacDonald was a "super nice kid" who loved being a firefighter, said his uncle, John Lee Hall, of Browning, Mont. He grew up on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation, but had been living in Missoula and attending the University of Montana as a physical education major. He enjoyed playing basketball in his free time, Hall said.
Monday, June 30, 2008
John talks up faithfulness, heart and firm feet; plus, the latest on Madonna & Guy, Jen & Ben, Brad & Angelina, Britney, Justin, Mary-Kate and many mo
John Mayer isn't exactly keeping his bologna hole closed when it comes to his romance with Jennifer Aniston, even if his responses require a bit of reading between the lines.
In a sit-down with USA Today to plug his newly launched tour and live CD/DVD, "Where the Light Is," he handily turns a direct question about his A-list honey of two months into a statement of self-affirmation.
"All I can tell you is that I have made every decision in my life with complete authenticity," pronounces the crooner. "My feet are firmly on the ground. If you do things from the heart, it feels awesome."
Mayer also mentions that he's happy to be back on tour and supporting "the message that I'm a musician, because there's been a lot of periphery lately."
Some well-toned, perfectly coiffed, paparazzi-hounded periphery.
"I don't have a problem with my privacy as much as I have a problem with people messing with my message," he explains. "If you're going to take pictures of me doing mundane stuff, will you at least take pictures of me playing guitar? Because right now it looks like all I do is drink coffee and do dry cleaning and go eat dinner."
Still, if the "Goonies"-loving chatterbox hopes to shift the focus back onto his pop ditties, perhaps he should suggest that Aniston keep her distance while he's on the road.
Jen looks perky after winging to Europe, while John still seems in need of some caffeine outside an Amsterdam coffee shop.
The Los Angeles Times reports she rendezvoused with Mayer earlier this week in Amsterdam, where he was performing, and he was supposedly spied exiting her hotel Tuesday morning.
The actress, who may or may not tag along on John's tour dates in England this week, did manage to squeeze in some work while she was in the pot-tolerant town, attending a press conference to promote her forthcoming doggie-centric flick, "Marley & Me."
But the gab-fest was strictly business, says the paper, with reporters under strict orders not to ask Aniston or leading man Owen Wilson any questions about their private lives.
Mayer, on the other hand, doesn't mind getting personal, at least about certain things.
"I've never cheated on anybody, so you won't have anybody coming out the woodwork saying that I have," the former flame of Jessica Simpson, Cameron Diaz and Jennifer Love Hewitt declares to the London Telegraph. "Instead of worrying about career damage, I've dated women."
Heck, he even shares his head-scratchingly successful wooing technique.
"All I've ever done was decided that I fancied somebody, and said, 'Would you like to go out and get a meal somewhere?' And done so in a social setting, where other people can see you," expounds Mayer. "And then maybe, 'Would you like to go have another meal?' Maybe did that a few times."
He also reveals his method for extricating himself from a romance that isn't working out: "And then, when I realized that I didn't wanna wrong anybody by continuing, said, 'I'd rather be a great friend to you than a bad boyfriend.' I swear to God, I have a really good track record!"
That stance is seemingly confirmed by a nugget in the New York Post, which claims he gave sometime squeeze Minka Kelly a buzz to let her know his romance with Aniston was about to go public.
"Minka received a call from John prior to the story breaking about his relationship with Jennifer," a snitch tattles to the paper. "He apologized to Minka, 'Sorry, but I'm really in love.'"
The spy says the "Friday Night Lights" starlet found it funny (as in strange, not ha-ha), because "during his relationship with her, John mentioned, 'I don't really get this Jennifer Aniston thing.'"
Meanwhile, Mayer also wants you to know he's not only a nice guy to date -- he's fun to hang out with.
"I think I'm a good beer-buddy," he asserts to the Telegraph. "The only people I rub up wrong are the people who think I shouldn't be having this good a time, the people who go, 'No one man should be that happy.'"
One person Mayer has apparently rubbed the right way is Aniston's pal David Arquette, who channels Tony the Tiger when asked about the lovebirds, telling Us, "They're great!"
In a sit-down with USA Today to plug his newly launched tour and live CD/DVD, "Where the Light Is," he handily turns a direct question about his A-list honey of two months into a statement of self-affirmation.
"All I can tell you is that I have made every decision in my life with complete authenticity," pronounces the crooner. "My feet are firmly on the ground. If you do things from the heart, it feels awesome."
Mayer also mentions that he's happy to be back on tour and supporting "the message that I'm a musician, because there's been a lot of periphery lately."
Some well-toned, perfectly coiffed, paparazzi-hounded periphery.
"I don't have a problem with my privacy as much as I have a problem with people messing with my message," he explains. "If you're going to take pictures of me doing mundane stuff, will you at least take pictures of me playing guitar? Because right now it looks like all I do is drink coffee and do dry cleaning and go eat dinner."
Still, if the "Goonies"-loving chatterbox hopes to shift the focus back onto his pop ditties, perhaps he should suggest that Aniston keep her distance while he's on the road.
Jen looks perky after winging to Europe, while John still seems in need of some caffeine outside an Amsterdam coffee shop.
The Los Angeles Times reports she rendezvoused with Mayer earlier this week in Amsterdam, where he was performing, and he was supposedly spied exiting her hotel Tuesday morning.
The actress, who may or may not tag along on John's tour dates in England this week, did manage to squeeze in some work while she was in the pot-tolerant town, attending a press conference to promote her forthcoming doggie-centric flick, "Marley & Me."
But the gab-fest was strictly business, says the paper, with reporters under strict orders not to ask Aniston or leading man Owen Wilson any questions about their private lives.
Mayer, on the other hand, doesn't mind getting personal, at least about certain things.
"I've never cheated on anybody, so you won't have anybody coming out the woodwork saying that I have," the former flame of Jessica Simpson, Cameron Diaz and Jennifer Love Hewitt declares to the London Telegraph. "Instead of worrying about career damage, I've dated women."
Heck, he even shares his head-scratchingly successful wooing technique.
"All I've ever done was decided that I fancied somebody, and said, 'Would you like to go out and get a meal somewhere?' And done so in a social setting, where other people can see you," expounds Mayer. "And then maybe, 'Would you like to go have another meal?' Maybe did that a few times."
He also reveals his method for extricating himself from a romance that isn't working out: "And then, when I realized that I didn't wanna wrong anybody by continuing, said, 'I'd rather be a great friend to you than a bad boyfriend.' I swear to God, I have a really good track record!"
That stance is seemingly confirmed by a nugget in the New York Post, which claims he gave sometime squeeze Minka Kelly a buzz to let her know his romance with Aniston was about to go public.
"Minka received a call from John prior to the story breaking about his relationship with Jennifer," a snitch tattles to the paper. "He apologized to Minka, 'Sorry, but I'm really in love.'"
The spy says the "Friday Night Lights" starlet found it funny (as in strange, not ha-ha), because "during his relationship with her, John mentioned, 'I don't really get this Jennifer Aniston thing.'"
Meanwhile, Mayer also wants you to know he's not only a nice guy to date -- he's fun to hang out with.
"I think I'm a good beer-buddy," he asserts to the Telegraph. "The only people I rub up wrong are the people who think I shouldn't be having this good a time, the people who go, 'No one man should be that happy.'"
One person Mayer has apparently rubbed the right way is Aniston's pal David Arquette, who channels Tony the Tiger when asked about the lovebirds, telling Us, "They're great!"
Sunday, June 29, 2008
I have learnt a lesson from 'slapgate': Harbhajan
Harbhajan Singh has no hesitation in admitting that he erred in slapping India team-mate S Sreesanth but the off-spinner says that he has learnt his lesson from the entire episode.
Currently serving a five ODI suspension, Harbhajan said to err is human and he was no exception.
"There are lot of things that I would have done differently. But we are all human and make mistakes. And we learn from our mistakes too. But yes, curbing temper would solve most of my problems," the belligerent off-spinner said.
Harbhajan slapped Sreesanth in the April 25 match between Mumbai Indians and Kings XI Punjab, following which he was banned from playing in the IPL, which cost him Rs three crore.
BCCI subsequently appointed Sudhir Nanavati to separately probe into the issue and the spinner was handed down a five-ODI ban.
Harbhajan blamed the entire episode to his passion, while representing India.
"I don't plan to get into troubles. I'm very passionate because I love to play for my country. I just get too involved. I try to win each and every match and I want to be there for my team, for my nation to deliver when it is required the most. In that you are not aware of what you are actually doing. But nobody wants to get into trouble," Harbhajan said.
Wiser after the incident, the Punjab spinner now sees the episode as a lesson for him that would stand him in good stead in the future.
"Whatever happens, happens for good. Had this not happened, I would not have learnt all this thing. I guess it was God's way of teaching me a lesson," Harbhajan said on a philosophical note.
Currently serving a five ODI suspension, Harbhajan said to err is human and he was no exception.
"There are lot of things that I would have done differently. But we are all human and make mistakes. And we learn from our mistakes too. But yes, curbing temper would solve most of my problems," the belligerent off-spinner said.
Harbhajan slapped Sreesanth in the April 25 match between Mumbai Indians and Kings XI Punjab, following which he was banned from playing in the IPL, which cost him Rs three crore.
BCCI subsequently appointed Sudhir Nanavati to separately probe into the issue and the spinner was handed down a five-ODI ban.
Harbhajan blamed the entire episode to his passion, while representing India.
"I don't plan to get into troubles. I'm very passionate because I love to play for my country. I just get too involved. I try to win each and every match and I want to be there for my team, for my nation to deliver when it is required the most. In that you are not aware of what you are actually doing. But nobody wants to get into trouble," Harbhajan said.
Wiser after the incident, the Punjab spinner now sees the episode as a lesson for him that would stand him in good stead in the future.
"Whatever happens, happens for good. Had this not happened, I would not have learnt all this thing. I guess it was God's way of teaching me a lesson," Harbhajan said on a philosophical note.
Govt okays doubling of IIT fees
New Delhi: The government has approved doubling of fees in the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) even though the fee hike at Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) remains unresolved.The HRD Ministry has approved the recommendation of the C N R Rao Committee that the fee for B.Tech and M.Tech courses be raised from Rs 25,000 to Rs 50,000 per annum, ministry sources said.The committee said a hike was necessary for IITs to cope with the rising cost of education and running the Institutes, a view also shared by the ministry.Sources said the new fees structure would be effective from the new academic session.The last fee hike in IITs was effected in 1998 and since the cost of education on account of infrastructure and faculties has gone up, the ministry accepted the fee hike proposal, they said.There are seven IITs at Kharagpur, Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi, Kanpur, Guwahati and Roorkee and every year about two lakh students vie for seats in these prestigious institutions.
Saturday, June 28, 2008
Your Hair Dilemmas, Solved!
Q. Why does my hair look totally fabulous one day but crappy the next, even when I style it the same way?A. Just like snowflakes, no two hair days are identical. Subtle switches in your styling routine plus the weather can change the way your do looks from day to day, says Scott Rottenberg, stylist at Tiffani Kim Institute on the Park in Chicago. While it's obvious that humidity causes frizz, you may not know that really dry air can also make your hair puffy. Plus, when your body heats up (like on a hot day), your scalp perspires slightly, and as a result, your hair can look flat. As for styling, keep consistent by making sure you're rinsing out all of your shampoo and conditioner and using the same blow-drying technique and amount of products every day. Q. More hair than usual is coming out when I shampoo (the shower drain is totally clogged). Am I going bald?A. Don't panic — most likely you are not losing your hair for good, assures Christopher Mackin, resident trichologist at Gil Ferrer Salon in NYC. You normally lose between 70 and 120 strands a day. Altering your diet, starting or ending a medication, or experiencing a lot of stress in the last three months can cause more to fall out, but that type of hair shedding is only temporary. If there isn't any obvious reason why you're losing strands, visit your doctor to rule out a thyroid problem. Regardless of the cause of your hair loss, start massaging your scalp every time you suds up. Doing so increases the blood flow to your follicles and promotes healthy hair growth.Q. I had my curly hair blown out pin-straight at the salon. It looked fantastic, so I bought the same brush and styling products my stylist used, but I can't manage to re-create the look. What's up?A. "You brought the brushes and products home with you but not the stylist," says Ric Pipino, owner of the Pipino salons in New York City and Miami. Beyond the fact that a pro gets more practice than you ever will, there are several advantages that your stylist has over you. "Since we stand above you, we're able to work at a downward angle, which is ideal for straightening hair," says Pipino. "It allows us to create the tension to stretch out the curl." Since you can't work on your own head from above, you should keep the nozzle aimed down the hair shaft so the cuticle lies flat and reflects more light. Finally, your stylist doesn't have to hold his arms up in the air like you do, so he doesn't get tired after five minutes. To avoid wearing out your arms, keep in mind that pros spend the first 80 percent of the styling process just blow-drying haphazardly before they begin the meticulous sleekening strategy, says Rottenberg. "Don't bother starting to straighten when it's still sopping wet — that takes forever."
Q. My hair gets so staticky this time of year. What can I do to tame it?A. Static strikes your strands when they become electromagnetically charged due to a lack of moisture in the air. Vigorous brushing and wool hats make it worse. Try switching to a moisturizing shampoo and conditioner during the winter, and follow up with a leave-in conditioner, says Dianna Sandonato, director of product testing at Matrix. Try Biolage Ultra-Hydrating Shampoo, $11.99, and Balm, $15.99. Another flyaway fighter: Spritz Static Guard onto your brush, let dry, then give strands a few swipes. Also spray some on the inside of your hat before you wear it to prevent a static attack. Q. Can taking vitamins make my hair healthier?A. Getting enough of certain vitamins, especially B vitamins such as biotin and folic acid, is essential for having strong, healthy hair. You should be able to get plenty of these nutrients from a balanced diet that includes such B-rich foods as salmon, eggs, and dark, leafy greens. But if you're not certain you're getting enough nutrients from your diet, you may want to take a daily vitamin pill to ensure that your strands stay in shape, says Audrey Kunin, MD, president of Dermadoctor.com. Look for multivitamins that contain at least 100 percent of the recommended daily allowance of vitamin B. Try Olay Vitamins Complete Woman's Multivitamin, $9. Q. Is it possible to heal damaged hair? If your strands are already dead, how can you feed them nutrients?A. Since your locks don't have a digestive system, it's impossible to feed them nutrients from a bottle. What shampoos and conditioners can do is help stressed-out tresses look healthier by coating the cuticle and even filling in holes with ingredients like fatty acids, proteins, and silicone. This will make each strand look shinier and feel softer, says Mackin. The best way to repair dry, damaged hair and prevent future breakage (other than cutting it off) is by using an intensive deep conditioner once a week. Look for one that contains proteins or acids to help strengthen weak strands and moisturizers to hydrate and soften. We like Frédéric Fekkai Protein Rx Reparative Treatment Mask, $52, and Garnier Fructis Fortifying Deep Conditioner, $3.99.
Q. How does snipping split ends help your hair grow from the root?A. Cutting your mane doesn't make it grow, but frequent trims ensure healthy locks. Frayed ends will continue to split up the hair shaft, making your hair weak and vulnerable to breakage. Trims prevent that breakage, so even when you're aiming for longer locks, you need to cut off a quarter of an inch every six weeks. Oh, and if you're thinking of cutting them on your own, don't you dare. "If your scissors aren't sharp enough, you can end up making the split ends even worse," says Pipino. While frequent snipping may make the growing process seem longer, it'll be worth the wait since your hair will be full and strong when it does reach your desired length. Q. I've been using at-home color kits for a year, and now my ends are darker than the rest of my hair. Why is this happening?A. Since the bottom inches of your hair are drier than the rest of your mane (especially since you've been chemically treating them), they absorb more color and require less time to process than the rest of your hair, says Monika Sullivan, owner of Studio Biba in Atlanta. That's why it's a good idea to deep condition your ends the day before you dye them. Also, if you apply hair color to your whole head every month or so, you'll end up coloring the older hair (the ends) much more than the newer hair on top, so over time, the ends will get darker. To fix: Apply a semipermanent hair color in the shade closest to your ends to your root area only.Q. I've heard it's bad to brush your hair a lot. Is this true?A. Teen beauty queen Marcia Brady may have followed the 100-strokes-a-day rule, but then again, she also worshiped Davy Jones from the Monkees! In reality, overbrushing can actually hurt your hair by wearing off the outer cuticle and overstimulating your scalp's oil glands. But the right amount of brushing will dislodge scalp flakes, get rid of product buildup and increase shine. All you need are 10 to 20 strokes a day with the proper brush. "The best brushes have a mix of synthetic and natural bristles, which gently distribute the oils down from your scalp," says Pipino. Two to try: Sephora Smoothing Hair Brush, $48, and Denman D81, $21.
Q. My hair gets so staticky this time of year. What can I do to tame it?A. Static strikes your strands when they become electromagnetically charged due to a lack of moisture in the air. Vigorous brushing and wool hats make it worse. Try switching to a moisturizing shampoo and conditioner during the winter, and follow up with a leave-in conditioner, says Dianna Sandonato, director of product testing at Matrix. Try Biolage Ultra-Hydrating Shampoo, $11.99, and Balm, $15.99. Another flyaway fighter: Spritz Static Guard onto your brush, let dry, then give strands a few swipes. Also spray some on the inside of your hat before you wear it to prevent a static attack. Q. Can taking vitamins make my hair healthier?A. Getting enough of certain vitamins, especially B vitamins such as biotin and folic acid, is essential for having strong, healthy hair. You should be able to get plenty of these nutrients from a balanced diet that includes such B-rich foods as salmon, eggs, and dark, leafy greens. But if you're not certain you're getting enough nutrients from your diet, you may want to take a daily vitamin pill to ensure that your strands stay in shape, says Audrey Kunin, MD, president of Dermadoctor.com. Look for multivitamins that contain at least 100 percent of the recommended daily allowance of vitamin B. Try Olay Vitamins Complete Woman's Multivitamin, $9. Q. Is it possible to heal damaged hair? If your strands are already dead, how can you feed them nutrients?A. Since your locks don't have a digestive system, it's impossible to feed them nutrients from a bottle. What shampoos and conditioners can do is help stressed-out tresses look healthier by coating the cuticle and even filling in holes with ingredients like fatty acids, proteins, and silicone. This will make each strand look shinier and feel softer, says Mackin. The best way to repair dry, damaged hair and prevent future breakage (other than cutting it off) is by using an intensive deep conditioner once a week. Look for one that contains proteins or acids to help strengthen weak strands and moisturizers to hydrate and soften. We like Frédéric Fekkai Protein Rx Reparative Treatment Mask, $52, and Garnier Fructis Fortifying Deep Conditioner, $3.99.
Q. How does snipping split ends help your hair grow from the root?A. Cutting your mane doesn't make it grow, but frequent trims ensure healthy locks. Frayed ends will continue to split up the hair shaft, making your hair weak and vulnerable to breakage. Trims prevent that breakage, so even when you're aiming for longer locks, you need to cut off a quarter of an inch every six weeks. Oh, and if you're thinking of cutting them on your own, don't you dare. "If your scissors aren't sharp enough, you can end up making the split ends even worse," says Pipino. While frequent snipping may make the growing process seem longer, it'll be worth the wait since your hair will be full and strong when it does reach your desired length. Q. I've been using at-home color kits for a year, and now my ends are darker than the rest of my hair. Why is this happening?A. Since the bottom inches of your hair are drier than the rest of your mane (especially since you've been chemically treating them), they absorb more color and require less time to process than the rest of your hair, says Monika Sullivan, owner of Studio Biba in Atlanta. That's why it's a good idea to deep condition your ends the day before you dye them. Also, if you apply hair color to your whole head every month or so, you'll end up coloring the older hair (the ends) much more than the newer hair on top, so over time, the ends will get darker. To fix: Apply a semipermanent hair color in the shade closest to your ends to your root area only.Q. I've heard it's bad to brush your hair a lot. Is this true?A. Teen beauty queen Marcia Brady may have followed the 100-strokes-a-day rule, but then again, she also worshiped Davy Jones from the Monkees! In reality, overbrushing can actually hurt your hair by wearing off the outer cuticle and overstimulating your scalp's oil glands. But the right amount of brushing will dislodge scalp flakes, get rid of product buildup and increase shine. All you need are 10 to 20 strokes a day with the proper brush. "The best brushes have a mix of synthetic and natural bristles, which gently distribute the oils down from your scalp," says Pipino. Two to try: Sephora Smoothing Hair Brush, $48, and Denman D81, $21.
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